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Developing Learning Outcomes

There are many issues to consider when developing outcomes for any curriculum. To borrow a concept from Stephen Covey, it is important to begin this process with the end in mind.17

Begin by asking, “What will the students be able to do upon successful completion (of the degree, the program, or the course)?” Consider in the answer the knowledge, skills, and abilities you might expect a student to have years after successfully completing your course or program. There may be several outcomes, and there is no magic number of outcomes for an institution, a program, or a course. What is important is that the essential components of learning are represented. Once a desired outcome is identified, it must be developed and written.

Author Ruth Stiehl (2017)18 provides an excellent four-part backward-design model for developing learning outcomes. Her model requires faculty to collaboratively consider and find consensus regarding the concepts and issues that students must understand and address, the skills students must master, the assessments that students must take to demonstrate mastery in class, and finally, what students can do after they finish the course or program. The result of this process is an outcome for the course, program, or institution (see Table 1).

Table 1. Ruth Stiehl Model for Writing Learning Outcomes (See Appendix J for template)

Concepts & Issues Skills Assessment Tasks Intended Outcomes
What must the learners understand or resolve to demonstrate the intended outcome? What skills must the learners master to demonstrate the intended outcome? What will learners do “in here” to demonstrate evidence of the outcome? What do learners need to be able to do “out there” in the rest of life?

Once the intended outcome is identified, it must be carefully written. Good outcomes clarify expectations of the faculty member to the student and ultimately the public, so ensuring the outcome is in fact “good” becomes important.

Several qualities characterize a good learning outcome, including these.

  • Good learning outcomes include action verbs.
  • Good learning outcomes clearly state who is to do the action.
  • Good learning outcomes clearly state what action is to be done.
  • Good learning outcomes are achievable.
  • Good learning outcomes are observable.
  • Good learning outcomes are measurable.
  • Good learning outcomes are aligned to the curriculum.

Selecting Verbs for the Outcome

Verbs to avoid

When writing learning outcomes, stay away from verbs or phrases that are not easily observed or measured. Verbs such as understand, appreciate, comprehend, and learn, are very difficult to measure or observe. When faculty lean toward using one of these words, Stiehl and Sours (2017)19 suggest a way out. Begin with the phrase, “Use their understanding of _________ to…” They provide as an example an outcome for a geriatric program: “(Use their understanding of the aging process to) observe and respond to subtle living patterns and behaviors,” and they add that one can drop the first part to begin the outcome with the action verbs. The outcome immediately becomes observable and measurable: “Observe and respond to subtle living patterns and behaviors” (Stiehl & Sours, 2017. p 49).

Tempted to write, “Students will understand?” Stop! Instead, follow the advice of Stiehl and Sours (2017).

Begin with the phrase, “Use their understanding of _________ to…”  They provide as an example an outcome for a geriatric program: “(Use their understanding of the aging process to) observe and respond to subtle living patterns and behaviors,” and they add that one can drop the first part to begin the outcome with the action verbs. The outcome immediately becomes observable and measurable: “Observe and respond to subtle living patterns and behaviors” (p 49).

Verbs to use

Use verbs that represent observable and measurable behaviors. These are verbs such as apply, demonstrate, describe, compute, explain, analyze, evaluate, compare, conclude, defend, and construct. Many educational institutions use Bloom’s taxonomy (1956) or some variation, such as Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), as a resource because it enables faculty to rely on precise language for expressing the learning outcomes of programs and courses.

The six categories of Bloom’s taxonomy allow a faculty member to assess a different type of skill or behavior in the course, starting from the lowest level of learning, the knowledge level, to the highest level, evaluation. The taxonomy is often presented visually as a pyramid (Figures 4, 5). In this representation, the most basic methods of cognition occur at the lowest levels; learning outcomes at the college level should focus on higher levels as often as possible.

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Figure 4: Bloom’s Taxonomy Pyramid - Original

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Figure 5. Bloom’s Taxonomy Pyramid – Revised

While many faculty are familiar with the levels in Bloom’s taxonomy, it is usually helpful to examine the variety of verbs that may be used to construct outcomes, assignments, and assessments when the goal is to articulate the type of behaviors that are desired. Three resource tables follow to provide examples of verbs that may be selected.

Table 2 (original Bloom’s) and Table 3 (revised version) define what is meant at each level of the taxonomy, and it provides related behaviors as verbs that can be selected when developing outcomes and related activities.

Table 2. Bloom’s Taxonomy: Definition and Related Behaviors

Category Definition Related Behaviors
Knowledge Recalling or remembering something without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it define, describe, identify, label, list, match, memorize, point to, recall, select, state
Comprehension Understanding something that has been communicated without necessarily relating it to anything else alter, account for, annotate, calculate, change, convert, group, explain, generalize, give examples, infer, interpret, paraphrase, predict, review, summarize, translate
Application Using a general concept to solve problems in a specific situation, using learned material in new and concrete situations apply, adopt, collect, construct, demonstrate, discover, illustrate, interview, make use of, manipulate, relate, show, solve, use
Analysis Breaking something down into its parts; may focus on identification of parts or analysis of relationships between parts, or recognition of organizational principles analyze, compare, contrast, diagram, differentiate, dissect, distinguish, identify, illustrate, infer, outline, point out, select, separate, sort, subdivide
Synthesis Relating something new by putting parts of different ideas together to make a whole blend, build, change, combine, compile, compose, conceive, create, design, formulate, generate, hypothesize, plan, predict, produce, reorder, revise, tell, write
Evaluation Judging the value of material or methods as they might be applied in a specific situation, judging with the use of definite criteria accept, appraise, assess, arbitrate, award, choose, conclude, criticize, defend, evaluate, grade, judge, prioritize, recommend, referee, reject, select, support

Table 3. Bloom’s (Revised20) Taxonomy: Definition and Related Behaviors

Category Definition Related Behaviors
Remember Recalling something without necessarily understanding, using, or changing it define, describe, identify, label, list, match, memorize, point to, recall, select, state
Understand Understanding something that has been communicated without necessarily relating it to anything else alter, account for, annotate, calculate, change, convert, group, explain, generalize, give examples, infer, interpret, paraphrase, predict, review, summarize, translate
Application Using a general concept to solve problems in a specific situation, using learned material in new and concrete situations apply, adopt, collect, construct, demonstrate, discover, illustrate, interview, make use of, manipulate, relate, show, solve, use
Analysis Breaking something down into its parts; may focus on identification of parts or analysis of relationships between parts, or recognition of organizational principles analyze, compare, contrast, diagram, differentiate, dissect, distinguish, identify, illustrate, infer, outline, point out, select, separate, sort, subdivide
Evaluation Judging the value of material or methods as they might be applied in a specific situation, judging with the use of definite criteria accept, appraise, assess, arbitrate, award, choose, conclude, criticize, defend, evaluate, grade, judge, prioritize, recommend, referee, reject, select, support
Creating Putting pieces of information together in a new way; reorganizing parts into a different form blend, build, change, combine, compile, compose, conceive, design, formulate, generate, hypothesize, plan, predict, produce, reorder, revise, tell, write

When reviewing options for verb use, the same verb may be used in more than one level. This is true because the outcome or activity to learn the associated skills influences how the verb is applied. Tables 4 and 5 (original and revised taxonomy) provide several verbs to help construct outcomes (or assignments, assessments, or learning activities) at each level of the taxonomy.

Table 4. Suggested Verbs for Each Level of Bloom’s Taxonomy

Knowledge Comprehension Application Analysis Synthesis Evaluation
Change Account for Apply Analyze Arrange Appraise
Choose Change Assess Appraise Assemble Assess
Define Cite examples of Change Calculate Collect Choose
Identify Demonstrate use of Compute Categorize Compose Compare
Label Describe Demonstrate Compare Construct Confirm
List Determine Dramatize Conclude Create Consider
Match Differentiate between Employ Contrast Design Critique
Name Discriminate Generalize Correlate Develop Estimate
Organize Discuss Illustrate Criticize Devise Evaluate
Outline Estimate Initiate Debate Enlarge Judge
Recall Explain Interpret Deduce Explain Measure
Recognize Express Modify Detect Formulate Qualify
Record Identify Operate Determine Manage Rate
Recount Interpret Practice Develop Modify Review
Relate Justify Predict Diagnose Organize Revise
Repeat Locate Produce Diagram Plan Score
Reproduce Modify Quantify Differentiate Predict Select
Select Pick Quantify Distinguish Prepare Test
Underline Practice Relate Draw conclusions Produce Validate

Recognize Schedule Estimate Propose Value

Report Shop Evaluate Reconstruct

Respond Solve Examine Re-organize

Restate Suggest Experiment Set-up

Review Use Identify Synthesize

Select Utilize Infer Systematize

Show Verify Inspect


Simulate
Inventory


Summarize
Predict


Tell
Question


Translate
Relate


Use your own words
Separate




Test

Table 5. Suggested Verbs for Each Level of Bloom’s (Revised21) Taxonomy

Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Choose Account for Apply Analyze Appraise Arrange
Define Change Assess Appraise Assess Assemble
Find Cite examples of Compute Calculate Choose Change
Identify Demonstrate use of Demonstrate Categorize Compare Compose
Label Describe Dramatize Compare Confirm Construct
List Determine Employ Conclude Consider Create
Match Differentiate between Generalize Contrast Critique Design
Name Discriminate Illustrate Correlate Estimate Develop
Outline Discuss Initiate Criticize Evaluate Devise
Recall Estimate Interpret Debate Explain Enlarge
Recognize Explain Modify Deduce Judge Formulate
Record Express Operate Detect Measure Invent
Recount Identify Organize Determine Rate Modify
Relate Interpret Predict Diagnose Review Plan
Repeat Justify Produce Diagram Revise Predict
Reproduce Locate Quantify Differentiate Score Prepare
Select Modify Quantify Distinguish Select Produce
Underline Pick Relate Draw conclusions Test Propose

Practice Schedule Estimate Validate Reconstruct

Recognize Solve Examine Value Re-organize

Report Suggest Experiment
Set-up

Respond Use Identify
Synthesize

Restate Utilize Infer
Systematize

Review Verify Inspect


Select
Inventory


Show
Predict


Simulate
Question


Summarize
Relate


Tell
Separate


Translate
Test


Use your own words



Finally, Stiehl and Sours (2017)22 recommend outcomes be written to represent what students should be able to do after leaving the current academic experience. In other words, an outcome should indicate what students will be able to do in another course, in a subsequent degree program, on a job, or even in life, after successfully completing the academic course or program. Table 6 provides ideas to promote such transferability.

Table 6. Using Verbs to Construct Outcomes that Translate Outside the Classroom

Transferable Skill(s) Verbs that Lead to Evidence of the Skills
Creativity originate, imagine, begin, design, invent, initiate, state, create, pattern, elaborate, develop, devise, generate, engender
Psycho-motor skills assemble, build, construct, perform, execute, operate, manipulate, calibrate, install, troubleshoot, measure, transcribe
Self-appraisal or reflection on practice reflect, identify, recognize, evaluate, assess, criticize, judge, critique, appraise, discern, judge, consider, review, contemplate
Planning or management of learning plan, prioritize, access, use, select, explore, identify, decide, strategize, organize, delegate, order, manage, propose, design
Problem-solving identify, choose, select, recognize, implement, define, apply, assess, resolve, propose, formulate, plan, solve
Communication or presentation skills communicate, express, articulate, question, examine, argue, debate, explain, formalize, respond, rebut, justify, defend, listen, illustrate, demonstrate, organize, pace, model, summarize, inform, persuade
Interactive, interpersonal, or group skills accommodate, interact, collaborate, participate, cooperate, coordinate, structure, arbitrate, initiate, lead, direct, guide, support, decide, set goals, motivate, reflect, evaluate, recognize, enable, redirect, mediate

In developing learning outcomes, faculty may need to consult existing course outlines as these list current outcomes. The State Course Numbering System Web page provides a search tool to find all approved and existing course numbers. Program faculty should ensure alignment to curriculum frameworks at the state level and specialized accreditors (if applicable). Links are below.

Table 7 provides sample outcomes at the institution, program, and course levels. Some examples are taken from actual outcomes at Palm Beach State College, while others are modified versions or written explicitly as an example for the table.

Table 7. Sample Outcomes (may or may not exist at PBSC)

INSTITUTION LEVEL SAMPLES
1. Critical thinking: Engage in purposeful reasoning to reach sound conclusions.
2. Ethics: Make informed decisions based on ethical principles and reasoning.
3. Information literacy: Find, evaluate, organize, and appropriately use information from diverse sources.
4. Communication: Employ writing, speaking, presenting, and reading skills to communicate appropriately and professionally to a variety of audiences.
5.Civility: Respectfully collaborate with diverse persons.
6. Mathematics: Use mathematical concepts to solve problems.
7. Humanities: Analyze creative arts and cultural perspectives.
PROGRAM LEVEL SAMPLES
1. Accounting: Prepare basic financial statements.
2. Computer Programming: Develop application software that can access files and databases.
3. Environmental Science Technology: Explain the importance of ethics and data integrity in scientific studies.
4. Human Services: Apply knowledge of mental health and human service trends, issues, and regulations to inpatient, outpatient, and other programs within the human services delivery system.
5. Interior Design Technology: Plan interior spaces that efficiently address client needs, furniture and equipment requirements, budgets, and environmental issues.
6. Law Enforcement Officer: Demonstrate proficiency in all high liability skills (firearms, defensive tactics, vehicle operations, first aid, and dart firing stun gun).
7. Massage Therapy: Competently communicate with massage therapists, clients, patients, and health care providers.
8. Nursing: Appraise patient or client health status through analysis and synthesis of relevant data.
9. Surgical Technology: Demonstrate the skills required for surgical procedures.
COURSE LEVEL SAMPLES
1. BSC 2420: Describe the major applications of modern molecular biotechnology and the implications of those applications.
2. ENC 1102: Compose non-fictional prose with a degree of formality appropriate to its subject, audience, and purpose.
3. LIT 2110: Identify significant ideas contributed to the world by international authors.
4. MAC 2233: Use integration to solve applications for business and economics.
5. MUL 1010: Analyze the stylistic characteristics of musical compositions.
6. POS 1041: Analyze national and domestic interests and foreign policy-making practices in the United States.
7. PSY 2012: Compare the theoretical principles that formed the field of psychology.

Outcomes may also include the expected result of the action, or the result may be stated separately as a target or benchmark. Examples of a health course learning outcome are shown both ways in Table 8.

Table 8. Options for Writing Learning Outcomes*

Outcome and target written separately Target integrated into outcome
Outcome: Students will identify consumer, political, and economic issues influencing health disparities in diverse populations.

Target: At least 80% of students will score 75 points or more on the 100-point unit test that requires demonstration of the skill stated in the outcome. 		At least 80% of students will identify consumer, political, and economic issues influencing health disparities in diverse populations by scoring 75 points or more on the related 100-point unit test.

In each case, the instructor and students in this health class know what students are expected to do after completing the related unit in the class, and they know what students must do to prove they have accomplished the outcome. Faculty also know what to look for in the assessment results to communication the degree to which students are achieving the outcome. (Assessment is covered in Part 3 of this handbook).

17Covey, S.R. (2003). The seven habits of highly effective people: Restoring the character ethic. New York: Free Press. Covey says that to “begin with the end in mind” is Habit 2.

18The New Outcome Primers Series 2.0 (2017 includes six “primers” on outcomes and related topics, published by The Learning Organization, Corvalis, Oregon. Visit www.outcomeprimer.com

19Stiehl, R. & Sours, L. (2017). The outcome primer: Envisioning learning outcomes. Corvallis, Oregon: The Learning Organization.

20Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing, Abridged Edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

21Anderson, L. W., & Krathwohl, D. R. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing, Abridged Edition. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon

22Stiehl, R. & Sours, L. (2017). The outcome primer: Envisioning learning outcomes. Corvallis, Oregon: The Learning Organization.